When it comes to overusing basic intensifiers, no one embraces them more than the ’90s duo Savage Garden, who famously sang: “I‘ll love you more with every breath, truly, madly, deeply do.” Notice how the adverbs “truly,” “madly,” and “deeply” add intensity to the depiction of love. Imagine if the lyric were simply “really do.” While it’s technically correct, it’s not very memorable.
That’s the problem with adverbs such as “really” and “very.” They work, but they rarely shine. In grammatical terms, they’re known as “intensifiers” — they amplify adjectives, verbs, or other adverbs. They’re perfectly acceptable in everyday English, but when used on repeat, they can make your words seem vague or weak.
Often, the simplest solution is to replace them with a better intensifier. Instead of saying, “I’m really confused,” try “utterly,” “thoroughly,” or “extremely.” Each option carries a slightly different tone, so the best choice depends on your audience and intent.
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It’s worth noting, however, that not every word benefits from a modifier. In some cases, it’s better to forgo one altogether, as exemplified by the common redundancy “very unique.” “Unique”” already implies one of a kind — you can eliminate the intensifier.
This illustrates another point: You don’t need an intensifier if you choose a stronger adjective or adverb, though this requires some creativity. Rather than “really big,” consider “huge,” “gigantic,” or “enormous.” Similarly, “very good” can be elevated to “excellent” or “outstanding,” and “very quietly” might be better said as “silently” or “stealthily,” depending on your intention. This approach feels more deliberate and less reliant on filler words.
By exploring these alternatives, you can make your writing (and your speech) truly, madly, deeply engaging and more memorable.
While someone speaking Russian may sound very different from someone speaking English, French, or Japanese, there are some things that all languages have in common.
More than 7,100 languages are spoken on Earth today, ranging from island tongues with only a few hundred speakers to the global giants Mandarin and English. These languages represent a dazzling array of linguistic constructs, each with its own sounds, grammar, and logic. And among them are languages that might seem almost alien to the average English speaker: languages that use clicks and whistles, those that have no words for describing numbers or colors, and, in the case of the Rotokas language, one with an alphabet of only 12 letters.
Despite their obvious differences, the languages of our world also share many fascinating similarities. These striking consistencies are known as linguistic universals — patterns that are hypothesized to be true for all human languages. (There is some debate involved as to how absolutely universal certain elements are, but they are, at the very least, prevalent.) Take a look at six things that are the same in almost every language.
Nouns and Verbs
Nearly all documented languages clearly distinguish between thingsandactions/states — nouns and verbs, respectively — in some form. The categories may include different words, and the line can blur, but the underlying distinction is near-universal. This likely reflects how human cognition is organized: We perceive the world as objects moving through time and doing things to each other. In this way, language can be understood as cognition made audible.
But some languages do blur the noun-verb boundary. The Salish languages, spoken in the Pacific Northwest, are a notable outlier with no clear distinction between nouns and verbs — for example, the root word for “fish” can mean “to fish,” “the fisher,” “the fishing,” or “there is a fish.” In Samoan, too, the verb-noun relationship is unusually flexible, with the same word appearing in positions that English would reserve strictly for either nouns or verbs. English has a history of turning nouns into verbs (and vice versa), but these examples are very much exceptions — and only to a certain degree — to what can otherwise be considered an almost universal rule.
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Questions and Answers
Every language has a way to ask a question and, in turn, give an answer. Humans are inherently curious, social creatures, and the ability to request information from others is so fundamental to cooperation that no culture has ever evolved without it — questions and answers are true linguistic universals. Polar questions are those that can be answered with a simple “yes” or “no” — such as, “Are you hungry?” These straightforward questions are among the most common types in most languages, but some languages don’t have defined, direct equivalents for “yes” and “no.” Irish is one such language, which instead relies on echo responses to answer questions, in which the verb from the question is repeated in the answer to indicate affirmation or negation (Q: Are you hungry? A: I am not). So, while all languages have the ability to ask questions and give answers, they don’t always do so in the same way.
Here and There
Spatial reference — known in linguistics as spatial deixis — is the ability to locate things relative to the speaker, and it’s universal to every known language. Languages have at minimum a two-way distinction between proximal (“here” or “near me”) and distal (“there” or “away from me”). But some languages have more elaborate systems. In Spanish, for example, there is a three-way system: aquí (“here,” “near me”), ahí (“there,” “near you”), and allí (“over there,” “far from both”). Other languages are even more complex — some Australian Aboriginal languages, for example, incorporate a fourth or fifth spatial distinction based on elevation and topographical elements (such as uphill/downhill or upstream/downstream). No matter the system in place, the universality of “here” and “there” is only logical — as humans, we are always somewhere, and language has to account for that.
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Mama and Papa
In many languages across the world, the words for “mother” and “father” are very similar. Mother words are particularly consistent, and the reason is fascinating. They often begin with a nasal sound (“m” or to a lesser degree “n”) — for example, mama in Spanish, maman in French, mamay in Quechua, and maa in Hindi — simply because these are among the very first babbling sounds a human baby can make, requiring almost no coordination of the lips or tongue. And once babies are capable of saying the “ma” sound, they soon learn to say “pa” and “da,” which accounts for the global similarity in words for “father,” such as “daddy” and the Spanish papá. In other words, it was babies who invented the words for “mother” and “father,” and they did it almost everywhere, independently, across the world.
Woof and Buzz
Every language on Earth uses onomatopoeia — words that imitate the sounds they describe. From the bark of a dog to the hum of an insect, humans instinctively try to recreate the noises of the animal world with their voices. In English, a dog goes “woof” and a bee goes “buzz” — but in Japanese it’s wan-wan for a dog (or au au for a smaller dog) and būn for a bee, in French it’s ouaf-ouaf and bzzz, and in Afrikaans it’s boef and zoem. They all reflect how each language hears and reproduces noises using their own set of speech sounds. While the exact imitation varies from culture to culture, the impulse is universal: Language takes cues from its environment and turns common sounds into words.
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Simile and Metaphor
All human languages use similes and metaphors. Both are universal cognitive and linguistic devices, acting as foundational tools that allow speakers to describe new, abstract, or complex concepts by comparing them to known, concrete experiences. And metaphorical thought isn’t just a feature of flowery prose and poetry — it represents how the human mind works and helps us to better understand our world.
Of course, metaphors, similes, and idioms differ greatly from one language to the next. While in English, for example, you can metaphorically be “caught with your pants down,” the Swedish equivalent is “sitting with your beard in the letter box.” And if someone “has a screw loose” in English, in Portuguese they might have “little monkeys in the attic.” So, while the concept of metaphors is universal, the metaphors themselves are distinct.
Life in 19th-century America was far different from life in America today. U.S. society was characterized by its rapid industrialization, vast westward expansion, and the devastating plights of slavery and civil war. But for all the trends that have been left behind — many for the best — it’s still worth revisiting how Americans communicated back then. One particularly fascinating topic is 19th-century slang. To learn more about it, we consulted an 1891 text, The American Slang Dictionary. Here are 12 instances of lost 1800s slang that caught our eye.
According to Gunter
The slang phrase “according to Gunter” references a 17th-century English clergyman and mathematician, Edmund Gunter. He created a measuring device called “Gunter’s chain,” which was used to accurately survey plots of land. Thus this phrase was coined to reference anything done reliably and in accordance with an established rule.
Hobson’s Choice
If you’re offered a Hobson’s choice, you might think you have free will to decide. But this type of choice is actually an illusion, and you have only one real option. The Hobson in question is a stable owner named Thomas Hobson from Cambridge, England. As the tale goes, Hobson would always make his customers choose the horse nearest the door, regardless of their personal preference. “Hobson’s choice” then refers to being pushed into only one option, under the guise of open selection.
Two Upon Ten
The phrase “two upon ten” means “to be especially watchful and attentive.” It was based on the idea of shop owners with suspicions that a customer was shoplifting. The vendor would use their two eyes to keep an eye on the suspected thief’s 10 fingers, ensuring the wannabe robber didn’t make off with any stolen goods.
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Mugwump
“Mugwump” first appeared around the 1884 presidential election. It described all voters who went against party politics and voted for a candidate from across the aisle. The first use of “mugwump” was applied to Republicans who chose to vote for the Democrat Grover Cleveland over their own party’s candidate, James G. Blaine. The word comes from the Alonguin mugquomp, meaning “leader.”
Monkey and Parrot Time
This odd phrase can be applied to petty quarrels or melees. Its origins sound like a bit of a fantastical tale — as the story goes, a woman left her favorite bird in the same room as a monkey, and when she left, the two animals began to fight. When the woman returned, the parrot purportedly said, “We’ve been having a hell of a time.”
Wake Up the Wrong Passenger
In the 19th century, train robberies were a valid concern — thieves would sneakily pick the pockets of sleeping travelers. But once in a while they’d accidentally wake up a passenger who would opt to fight back. This gave rise to the slang phrase “wake up the wrong passenger,” which refers to rousing a person who puts up resistance after being bothered.
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Shoddyocracy
“Shoddyocracy” refers to a person or business that accrues wealth by selling inferior services and goods. It combines the word “shoddy” — meaning “inferior” — with “–cracy,” a suffix that comes from the Greek kratos, meaning “power.”
Walk Your Chalks
People who “walk their chalks” are behaving properly. It comes from the idea that a drunk man would have a tough time walking in a straight chalk line drawn on the ground, whereas someone who is well behaved would have little issue.
Button-Holing
If you were to button-hole someone, that person would rather be anywhere else than listening to you talk. It stems from the idea of holding the button of a victim’s coat to prevent their ability to escape. Anyone being button-holed would have a tough time escaping unwanted conversation.
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Forty-Rod
Back in the 19th century, strong, cheap, and potentially dangerous whiskey was known as “forty-rod.” The idea was that the whiskey was so potent that its fumes could kill from a distance of 40 rods away; each rod equaled 5.5 yards, and 40 rods equaled 220 yards.
Dyed in the Wool
If someone is dyed in the wool, they’ve held on to their faith and principles. Home-spun clothing was dyed by hand, which became a rarity as industrialization and mass production became more common. The phrase was often used to describe well-intentioned politicians, as it was rare to find one who hadn’t been corrupted.
Chicagoed
If you’ve been Chicagoed, you’ve been trounced in competition. The term refers to a 19th-century Chicago baseball team that was extremely talented and known for walloping their opponents. The teams that failed to score against them were said to have been Chicagoed.
9 Terms That Instantly Reveal That You’re From the South
Certain words are markers of specific regions of the United States. Southern American English has one of the most distinctive dialects, with words and phrases you won’t find anywhere else in the country.
When you meet someone for the first time, you might ask things like, “Where did you go to school?” or “Where did you grow up?” You can also look for certain context clues that will give you something to talk about. A hat or a sweatshirt might broadcast their allegiance to a certain university, and their accent or use of certain terms can give away where they’re from. For example, if they say “wicked” instead of “very,” they’re probably from Boston, and if they use “stove up” for “exhausted,” they’re likely from Maine. A Californian, on the other hand, might say “hella” instead of “very,” “stoked” instead of “excited,” or “gnarly” instead of “intense.” But what if they’re from the South?
Y’all
Arguably the most ubiquitous Southernism is “y’all.” This go-to term originated as a contraction of “you all,” likely from the 17th-century Scots-Irish phrase “ye aw” — commonly used by Scottish and Irish immigrants in letters from the early 18th century. Similar linguistic structures are also present in the languages of enslaved people, such as the West African language Igbo. In the South, “y’all” is used to address two or more people, and “all y’all” addresses each person in a group individually.
Fixin’ To
“Fixin’ to” means “about to,” as in, “I’m fixin’ to bake a cherry pie.” It derives from a 17th-century usage of “fix,” meaning “to arrange or prepare.” This Southern colloquialism has spread to Oklahoma and even the Pacific Northwest and New England. Another variation is the word “fixins” to refer to side dishes, as in “a Thanksgiving meal with all the fixins.”
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Coke
“Coke” in the American South has become a generic term for any soft drink. So, if you’re down South and ask for a coke, you could get a Coke, Pepsi, Sprite, Dr. Pepper, or 7-Up. The reason is historical, as Coca-Cola was invented in 1886 by John Pemberton, a pharmacist in Atlanta, Georgia, and soon became widely popular across the South and then the entire United States.
Bless Your Heart
“Bless your heart” can mean different things depending on the context, and even a slight change in inflection can make all the difference. It can be a backhanded comment about foolish behavior, or it can be a genuine expression of sympathy. It can also be a polite yet passive-aggressive way to insult someone’s intelligence. Contrast these examples: “I heard you fell and hurt yourself, bless your heart,” and “He’s not the sharpest tool in the box, bless his heart.”
Druthers
“Druthers” was originally “druther,” an alteration of the phrase “would rather,” first appearing in writing in the late 1800s. For example, in Mark Twain’s Tom Sawyer, Detective (a sequel to The Adventures of Tom Sawyer), Tom says to Huck Finn: “Any way you druther have it, that is the way I druther have it.” This is an example of metanalysis, shifting a sound from one element of a phrase to another.
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A Spell
“A spell” is a term deeply tied to the American South. “Come on in and sit a spell” (or “set a spell”) encourages a visitor to stay a while in a relaxed setting. “Spell” originated in Old English, meaning “a story,” and by the early 1700s it meant “a short time.”
Tore Up
“Tore up” signifies being overwhelmed, emotionally devastated, or physically wrecked. It originated in the 19th century as Southern slang meaning “drunk,” as in the expression “tore up from the floor up.” “Tore up” can also refer to someone looking haggard, or to a damaged item. “Tore” ultimately derives from the Old English teran, meaning “to pull apart, lacerate.”
Yonder
“Over yonder,” a term commonly used in Appalachia and rural areas of the South, means “within sight, but not near.” It derives from the Old English geond, meaning “beyond, at a distance, over there.” “Over yonder” is now archaic in England, but it survives in Southern American dialects. Variants include “way over yonder” and “up yonder.”
Clodhopper
“Clodhopper” originated in 17th-century England as “clod hopper” to refer to someone hopping between clods of earth while working in fields, and it evolved to refer to any clumsy, uncouth country bumpkin. In the American South, “clodhopper” retained the latter definition, and in Appalachia it came to refer to sturdy, heavy footwear. In the late 1950s, comedian Red Skelton created a hillbilly character, Clem Kadiddlehopper, whose name is reminiscent of “clodhopper.” When Clem was asked how he spelled his last name, his reply was, “Wrong every time!”
Everyone knows the surnames Washington and Lincoln, but the etymological origins of the names are less familiar. Let’s examine the meanings of every president’s last name.
Forty-five individuals have held the role of president of the United States, and their names have been etched into the annals of history. While those monikers hold historical importance, they also possess etymological significance — each presidential surname provides us with a fascinating glimpse into the clans and cultures that past POTUSes were born into. Here’s a look at the origins and meanings behind every president’s last name.
Washington
The surname of the very first president is a habitational (meaning related to a place) name of English origin. According to Ancestry.com, it likely refers to the town of Washington in County Durham. The name of that town is derived from the Old English personal name Hwassa, combined with the connective -ing-, and finally the suffix –tūn (which means “estate” or “farmstead”).
Adams
Two presidents — John Adams and his son John Quincy Adams — share the surname Adams. Their name is a patronymic (meaning from the father’s heritage) of English origin, derived from the personal name Adam.
Jefferson
The name Jefferson — as in Thomas Jefferson — is a patronymic that originated in Middle English. It combines the personal name Jeffrey with the suffix “–son,” as in the phrase “Jeffrey’s son.” The name was pronounced as Jeffrason during the Middle Ages, but the vowel sound was shortened over time, resulting in the modern pronunciation.
Madison
Madison is a patronymic variant of the names Mattison and Mattinson, both meaning “son of Matthew.” The middle consonant shifted from a /t/ sound to a /d/ sound over time, resulting in the surname of President James Madison.
Monroe
The surname of President James Monroe is a variant of the Scottish name Munro. The latter is a nickname of the Gaelic Rothach, which means “man from Ro” — referring to the river Roe in Derry.
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Jackson
While Andrew Jackson was born in the land that would become the Carolinas, his father migrated from Carrickfergus in Northern Ireland. From there they brought the last name Jackson — a patronymic meaning “Jack’s son.”
Van Buren
Van Buren is of Dutch origin, and in fact, President Martin Van Buren spoke Dutch as a child before he learned English. The name features two parts — Van means “from” or “by,” while Buren refers to the Dutch municipality of Buren.
Harrison
The surname Harrison is shared by President William Henry Harrison and his grandson Benjamin. It’s a patronymic of English origin that means “Harry’s son” — Harry being a popular variant/pronunciation of the name Henry.
Tyler
President John Tyler has the first occupational surname of any past POTUS. It’s derived from the Old French tieuleor or the Middle English tiler(e), both of which mean “tiler,” a person who lays floor or roof tiles.
Polk
James K. Polk was of Scots-Irish descent. Polk is a shortened variant of the name Pollock, which is a habitational name referring to an area in Glasgow.
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Taylor
President Zachary Taylor’s surname is widely used throughout the British Isles. It’s an occupational surname that comes from the Middle English word “taillour,” which is derived from the Latin verb taliare, meaning “to cut” — something a tailor does often.
Fillmore
The last name of President Millard Fillmore is of English origin. It’s believed to be a habitational name that refers to a place called Fyllymore in the village of Slimbridge, Gloucestershire.
Pierce
President Franklin Pierce’s surname comes from the Middle English name “Piers,” which is a variant of the Old French names Pierre and Per (the French forms of Peter). The name is commonly spelled “Pearce” throughout England, while “Pierce” is the more common spelling in Wales and the United States.
Buchanan
The surname of the 15th president, James Buchanan, originated in Scotland. It’s a habitational name that refers to the parish of Buchanan in Stirlingshire.
Lincoln
Honest Abe’s last name is a habitational name of English origin. It comes from the town of Lincoln, a place that combines the British term Lindo- (“lake”) and the Latin colonia (“settlement”).
Johnson
Johnson is yet another English patronymic to make this list of presidential surnames. It means “John’s son,” and it applies to both Andrew Johnson of the Reconstruction era as well as Lyndon B. Johnson of the Civil Rights era.
Grant
Ulysses S. Grant was far from the tallest president, measuring just 5 feet, 8, but his surname suggests the opposite. Grant is a word of Norman origin derived from graund,meaning “tall or large.”
Hayes
The surname Hayes — as in that of the 19th president, Rutherford B. Hayes — is a habitational name of Norman origin. It comes from the Old English hǣse, which means “land overgrown with brushwood.”
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Garfield
In addition to being the name of a U.S. president and a grumpy cartoon cat, Garfield is a topographic name of English origin. It combines the Middle English “gor(e)” (“triangular piece”) with “feld” (“open field”) to describe those who lived on open swaths of land.
Arthur
There’s no denying that Chester A. Arthur was America’s 21st president, but there is a bit of dispute over the origins of his surname. Some believe it’s derived from the Gaelic term art or the Welsh arth, both meaning “bear.” Others say it comes from the Latin family name Artorius, which is defined as “noble.”
Cleveland
Cleveland is an English habitational surname, and it refers to several British locations throughout Devon, Essex, and North Yorkshire. It’s a combination of the Old English words clif-, meaning “bank,” and –land, which (unsurprisingly) means “land.”
McKinley
William McKinley’s last name is an anglicized form of the Gaelic Mac Fhionnlaigh. That name is a patronymic derived from Fionnlaoch — a popular Gaelic personal name that’s more commonly spelled as “Finley” today.
Roosevelt
Presidential cousins Theodore and Franklin share the last name Roosevelt. The name is a habitational surname of Dutch origins. It refers to either a farm called Rozenveld or a farm called Ruiseveld. Those names combine the Middle Dutch terms rose (“wild rose”) with velt (“open country”).
Taft
Taft is a variant of the English surname Toft, which is derived from the Old Norman term Topt, denoting those who lived in the forest. In the U.S., it’s best known as the surname of the 27th president, William Howard Taft.
Wilson
President Woodrow Wilson brought the trend of patronymic presidential surnames into the 20th century. His last name comes from Middle English and means “Will’s son.”
Harding
The last name Harding — as in that of President Warren G. Harding — comes from the Old English heard, meaning “hard, harsh, strong, etc.” This evolved to Hearding, which means “the hard one,” and was eventually Americanized to Harding.
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Coolidge
Silent Cal’s surname has uncertain origins, though there are some probable theories. It’s believed that Coolidge may refer to tenant farmers who worked on college farms across England, which were owned by universities (hence their name).
Hoover
The last name Hoover is an anglicized version of the German Huber. That word refers to any prosperous farm or land owner, as Hube is a German term for a large tract of land.
Truman
Truman is said to be an Americanized version of the German Trumann or Trautmann. Those are the words for someone who can be described as a “true man” — i.e., a reliable and trustworthy person.
Eisenhower
Ike’s surname is an Americanized version of the German Eisenhauer. That last name is an occupational name used for iron workers. Īsen means “iron,” whereas houwaære is a version of the verb houwen, meaning “to cut.”
Kennedy
The famed Kennedy family is notably of Irish descent. Their last name comes from the Gaelic Ó Ceannéidigh, which is a combination of the words ceann, meaning “head,” and éidigh, meaning “ugly” — a bit surprising since President John F. Kennedy and his descendants are regarded for their good looks.
Nixon
Richard Nixon’s last name is a Middle English patronymic. It’s derived from the name Nik(k)e — a shortened form of the name Nicholas — and essentially means “Nick’s son.”
Ford
The surname Ford is a topographic name that describes people living near a ford, a shallow part of any river or stream. It’s derived from Middle English and is widely used to describe places throughout Britain.
However, President Gerald Ford was actually born under a different name: Leslie Lynch King Jr. That birth surname comes from the Old English cyning, meaning “ruler.” He changed his name to honor his stepfather, who raised him.
Carter
The name Carter is an English occupational surname, referring to someone transporting goods using a cart. While the name comes directly from Middle English, it evolved from the Anglo-Norman French caretier and the Latin carettarius.
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Reagan
Reagan is a variant of the Irish Regan, which is a shortened form of O’Regan. That name is an anglicized take on the Gaelic Ó Ríagáin, referring to descendents of Ríagán, which is a personal name meaning “impulsive” or “furious.”
Bush
The name Bush applies to two former U.S. presidents: George H. W. and his son George W. It’s an English topographical surname referring to people who live near bushy areas. It comes from the Middle English “bushe,” which is derived from the Old Norse buskr.
Clinton
The surname Clinton likely originated in the British Isles. One theory is that it refers to the settlement Glympton in Oxfordshire, with that name meaning a settlement (tūn) located on the River Glyme (glym being Celtic for “bright stream”).
Obama
The surname Obama is associated with the Luo people of Kenya, where it translates to “slightly bent.” It holds great resonance in that culture, signifying the power of destiny, even with all of life’s twists and turns.
Trump
The Trump surname can be traced back to the German name Drumpf, which originated in the 16th century. It’s associated with the nickname Rumpf — a Middle High German term meaning “trunk body” that was used to describe large men.
Biden
Biden is believed to be a habitational name from English, specifically referring to the village of Baydon in Wiltshire. There are also occupational connections; the name could refer to button-makers, as it may be derived from the French boton, meaning “button.”
Slang Added to the Dictionary in the Last Five Years
Certain words start out as casual slang, but are eventually immortalized in the dictionary. Here are several examples that have been added over the last half-decade.
Some slang terms sweep through society like metaphorical wildfires. You might see a new word pop up on social media one day, and the next, you hear it deployed in a casual conversation on the street. But fame is fickle, and many slang terms fade into obscurity as quickly as they first became popular.
For all the forgotten slang terms (RIP, “da bomb”), others exude impressive staying power. That enduring popularity is what makes any word — slang or otherwise — likely to earn a spot in the dictionary. For proof of this phenomenon, here are 10 slang terms that have been enshrined in the Merriam-Websterdictionary over the course of the last five years.
Amirite
Merriam-Webster added “amirite” — a slangy take on the more formal “Am I right?” — to the dictionary in 2021. The expression, coined in 1998, is often used as a tag question, a term tacked on to the end of any statement in order to gain assent. You may say, “It’s a beautiful day out, amirite?” or, “That movie was hilarious, amirite?”
FTW
The year 2021 also saw the abbreviation “FTW” added to the dictionary. The slangy shortening of the phrase “for the win” is often used in text communication, but if said out loud, you would use the full words. People typically use the abbreviation in the context of a triumphant feeling. For instance, you may text a friend, “cute blue dress FTW,” with a picture of said dress when you stumble on an outfit that really suits you, or type, “total dominance FTW,” in the game chat when winning at online video games.
Yeet
“Yeet” was inducted into the dictionary in 2022. This slang term has two primary uses, the first of which dates to 2007 when it was coined as an interjection meant to express surprise, approval, or enthusiasm. In 2017, people began using “yeet” as a verb; “to yeet” something is to throw it with a lot of force and very little regard for its well-being.
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Janky
We also saw the term “janky” earn a permanent place in the Merriam-Webster dictionary in 2022. While its origins are uncertain, some etymologists posit that it’s a regional AAVE (African-American Vernacular English) pronunciation of the word “junky,” as in something of inferior quality. “Janky” has been in use since 1989.
Goated
The word “goated” — sometimes written as “GOATED” or “GOATed” — was added to the dictionary in 2023. It was coined in 2017 to refer to anything considered the greatest of all time (GOAT), whether it be a star athlete or the tastiest meal you’ve ever eaten.
Doggo
Pet owners have been referring to their beloved fur babies as “doggos” for decades, but it was only in 2023 that Merriam-Webster finally added this playful slang term to its dictionary. It’s worth noting that “doggo” has another definition dating back to the late 19th century, when it was used as an adverb meaning “in hiding to avoid notice.”
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Nepo Baby
The youth had their voices heard in 2024 when Merriam-Webster added many popular Gen Z slang terms to the dictionary. This includes “nepo baby,” which refers to a person who gains success through familial connections — think Paris Hilton as the daughter of a famous hotelier, or actor Jack Quaid as the son of actors Dennis Quaid and Meg Ryan. The term originated in 1992, long before Gen Z was even born, though it gained renewed popularity in recent years.
Shadow Ban
“Shadow ban” is a slangy verb that refers to when a user is hidden from others on an app or website. Unlike standard bans or blocks, the person being shadow banned typically doesn’t know they’ve been banned, as no direct warning is issued. For instance, when someone is shadow banned on a dating app, their profile is hidden from many other users, though they may not realize it and will continue to use the app as normal. The slang term was coined around 2007 and was added to the dictionary in 2024.
Adulting
Millennials came up with one of their favorite slang terms in 2013: “adulting.” The verb form refers to conducting the everyday tasks often associated with adulthood. For instance, you may say, “I’m adulting,” after doing your taxes or going to the bank. It was added into the Merriam-Webster dictionary in 2025, 12 years after being coined.
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Doomscroll
Have you ever laid awake in bed endlessly reading all the terrible news stories on your phone? If so, you’ve doomscrolled, which is slang defined as “spending excessive time scrolling through online content that makes one feel sad, anxious, or angry.” “Doomscroll” was added to the dictionary in 2025.
6 Popular English Idioms That Came From Other Languages
Our everyday conversations are filled with idioms — “break the ice,” “down in the dumps,” “time flies” — but some of them aren’t original to English. Learn some common idioms that got their start in another language.
Languages are the ultimate borrowers, always keen to take from their linguistic cousins, and the English language is certainly no exception. Over the centuries — through travel, trade, empire, invasion, and cultural exchange — it has absorbed many words from languages both ancient and comparatively modern, including Latin, French, Arabic, Chinese, and a dozen other tongues. Many of these words have stuck, becoming commonplace in their adoptive language. But English doesn’t borrow just individual words — it also has borrowed whole idioms. The result is a language peppered with expressions that feel distinctively English today, but that have their origins somewhere else entirely — in a different time, a different culture, and an entirely different language.
Here are six common idioms in English that came from other languages.
Devil’s Advocate
Today, “devil’s advocate” is a common idiom used to refer to someone who argues a contrary position for the sake of debate. But its origins are found in Latin, not English, and its roots are quite specific. In the 16th century, the Roman Catholic Church introduced the position of Promoter of the Faith (promotor fidei in Latin), whose role was to examine the deeds — and possible miracles — attributed to individuals being examined for sainthood. The person holding this position was also known as the advocatus diaboli, or devil’s advocate, because part of their role was to scrutinize everything about the candidate — positive and negative — in order to judge their suitability for canonization. “Devil’s advocate” slowly made its way into English, borrowed directly from the Latin phrase but with its meaning broadened beyond its theological origins.
Lose Face (and Save Face)
“To lose face” (to be humiliated or suffer a loss of respect) and its opposite, “to save face” (to avoid humiliation and retain respect), are common idioms in English. Perhaps surprisingly, both arrived in English via late-19th-century interactions with China, where diū liǎn and liú diǎr miànzi (meaning “to lose face” and “to save face,” respectively) and their Pidgin Englishcounterparts were common expressions with great cultural significance. In Chinese culture, face (one’s social standing and reputation) was a concept of considerable weight and nuance. So, when British diplomats, traders, and missionaries heard the two expressions, they took note — and then took the idioms back home to Britain, where the concepts of losing face and saving face began to be used in contexts far lighter than the original Chinese idioms would have implied.
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In a Nutshell
If we’re summarizing something concisely, we might preface it by saying, “In a nutshell ….” It’s a snappy expression that may have a satisfyingly classical lineage. The Roman scholar Pliny the Elder described a copy of Homer’s “Iliad” that was so small it could fit into the shell of a nut — in nuce in Latin. It seems highly unlikely that an epic poem such as the “Iliad” could actually fit inside a nutshell, no matter how small the writing. But, whether or not the tiny book truly existed, the image stuck and “in a nutshell” became a common expression in Latin and later in English. Shakespeare helped establish the idiom in English when he had Hamlet speak the line, “I could be bounded in a nutshell, and count myself a king of infinite space, were it not that I have bad dreams.” By the 1800s, the meaning had narrowed to refer more specifically to something stated in a few words.
Take It With a Grain of Salt
The notion of taking something with a grain of salt was first recorded in the English language in 1647, but the phrase may have originated in ancient Rome — with Pliny the Elder as well. In his encyclopedic 37-volume Naturalis Historia, completed in 77 CE, Pliny tells the story of a Roman general who found a poison antidote among the belongings of Mithridates VI — an antidote that should, according to the Latin instructions, be taken addito salis grano, or “having added a grain of salt.” Pliny’s work popularized the idea of using salt to neutralize poison, and also created the long-lasting, salt-related metaphor. The idiom eventually found its way into the English language, where it’s used as a suggestion for treating claims with a healthy degree of skepticism.
Blue Blood
When we describe someone as having blue blood, it typically means that they belong to a royal, noble, or at least socially prominent family. But the origin of the expression is problematic by today’s standards. The idiom entered English as a direct translation of the Spanish sangre azul. The phrase originated among the Castilian nobility of the early 19th century (and perhaps earlier), who claimed that their blood ran blue as it was “untainted” by non-Castilian populations. The notion likely arose due to the blue veins that were visible beneath their pale skin — and that weren’t visible in those of a darker complexion, such as the Moors. The phrase entered the English language not long after, in reference to any member of an aristocratic family.
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It's All Greek to Me
This phrase, which means something is completely incomprehensible, was popularized in English by William Shakespeare. He used it in Julius Caesar — written around 1599 — when Casca says of Cicero’s speech: “Those that understood him smiled at one another and shook their heads; but, for mine own part, it was Greek to me.” But Shakespeare may have borrowed it from an older Latin phrase used by medieval monks: Graecum est; non legitur, literally meaning “It is Greek; it cannot be read.” The monks, who were capable of reading Latin but not necessarily so good with Greek, wrote this in the margins of manuscripts when they encountered Greek text they couldn’t decipher. So goes the theory, at least. It’s hard to say for certain whether Shakespeare coined the saying independently or possibly adapted the monks’ marginal complaint — but he certainly helped establish the idiom in the English language.
Most native English speakers know tens of thousands of words but use only a few thousand in daily life. This isn’t due to laziness; it’s by design. This is because the number of words you actually use throughout the day — your active vocabulary — is quite different from words you understand but rarely use, aka your passive vocabulary. While this balance varies from person to person, researchers have found clear patterns behind it.
Active Vocabulary: Your Most Important Words
Also known as your working vocabulary, your active vocabulary comprises the words you recognize and use correctly and confidently in conversations, emails, and presentations without hesitation. You are fluent in their forms and meanings.
For instance, you might say, “I was delighted to receive your message,” rather than “I was enraptured,” because “delighted” is part of your active vocabulary and “enraptured” is part of your passive vocabulary. While the size of someone’s active vocabulary varies from person to person, it often includes many of the same words, as identified in the list of the 3,000 most common words in English by EF Education First.
We need only a few thousand words to communicate effectively in English, and in daily life, we practice just that. According to Benjamin Lindsey — founder of Lingualab and author of Lessons for a Billionaire, a psychology-based communication book — we actually use only 3,000 to 5,000 words in everyday conversation, even though we know tens of thousands more — up to 42,000 by some estimates. Why? Because active vocabulary is easier to call upon than passive vocabulary.
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3,000 Words Is the Sweet Spot
A number of researchers have investigated the necessary vocabulary list of the average English speaker to determine how many words are required for fluency. A study showed that 95% to 98% lexical coverage (meaning how much of a text is understood) may be needed for reading comprehension. Additional findings revealed that knowledge of 3,000 of the most frequent word families provides 95% lexical coverage of the English language, while 98% coverage requires 6,000. (Note that a word family is a group of words with a common base. Linguists prefer this metric so that, for example, the words “walk,” “walks,” and “walked” are counted as only one entry.)
While knowing 3,000 words covers most of what we encounter daily, we actually need far fewer to understand the basics. According to the British National Corpus, the most-used 1,000 words are featured in 89% of daily writing, with “the” earning the top spot. Moreover, the most popular 100 words appear in 50% of adult and student writing.
Passive Vocabulary: The Extra Stuff
Between the ages of 20 and 60, the average American English speaker learns 6,000 new word families, which can amount to tens of thousands of new individual words. However, not all of these get added to the daily rotation. Instead, they remain in our passive vocabulary. We understand them while reading or listening, but we don’t naturally reach for them in conversation.
For example, you might understand “obfuscate” in a newspaper article, but you’d likely hesitate to use it in conversation and instead employ a more common word, such as “confuse.” This is because we default to what we know best: the 3,000 or so words in our active vocabulary. Plus, communication is most effective with commonly known words. If an obscure term isn’t naturally part of your vocabulary, it probably isn’t part of the vocabulary of the person you’re talking to.
There’s some debate as to how many words the average American English speaker has in their passive vocabulary. While Lindsey estimates the number at 20,000 to 35,000, new research published in Frontiers in Psychology found it to be around 42,000. Vocabulary size test results show the lowest 5% of scorers knew 27,000 words, while the highest 5% knew 52,000. However, estimates vary across studies, depending on what researchers consider a word, such as base words, word families, lemmas (a type of base), and other criteria.
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Why Using Fewer Words Is a Good Thing
Considering there are more than 470,000 word entries in the dictionary (including archaic, technical, regional, and obsolete words), utilizing a measly 3,000 to 5,000 words daily may seem subpar, but this isn’t the case. Having an excellent vocabulary isn’t about how many long or obscure words you can recall off the top of your head.
As Lindsey explains, we don’t need to use every word we know — and we shouldn’t. While this may sound dull or uncreative, it’s simply how humans are intended to communicate. It’s less about knowing many words and more about knowing the right word.
Precision and clarity help define a good vocabulary. For example, instead of saying, “He was mad,” you might say, “He was furious.” “Furious” is not uncommon, yet it is more exact than “mad,” allowing you to communicate more efficiently through tone and context.
Lindsey’s advice on incorporating new vocabulary is this: After learning a new word, look for it in your daily conversations. If you hear it often, add it to your active vocabulary and start using it yourself. If you don’t hear the word, don’t worry too much about forcing it into your personal lexicon, especially in everyday conversation.
The 1950s were a time of pop culture revolution in the United States. Hollywood stars such as Elizabeth Taylor and James Dean captivated audiences on the silver screen, while the golden age of television brought families together each evening at home for I Love Lucy, Leave It to Beaver, and The Twilight Zone. In music, rock ’n’ roll dominated the airwaves, with stars such as Elvis Presley, Chuck Berry, and Little Richard rising to fame.
At the same time, a post-World War II economic boom fueled the growth of American suburbs, and youth culture flourished, marked by poodle skirts and pomaded hair. Not surprisingly, the decade also gave rise to some of the most memorable slang of the 20th century. Let’s take a look back at how people used to yak in the 1950s.
Yak
“Yak” doesn’t refer to just an animal. In the 1950s, it became a verb for persistent talking or chatter, as in, “Stop yakking and get back to work!” It often suggests time-wasting, nagging, or rambling. And while its exact origin is unclear, it may be connected to the 19th-century Australian slang “yacker,” meaning “talk” or “conversation.” It gained popularity with “Yakety Yak,” the 1958 hit song by the R&B group the Coasters.
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Bird Dog
Today, to bird-dog is to watch someone or something closely. It’s derived from the 19th-century noun “bird dog,” a hunting dog trained to retrieve game. By the 1930s, the noun had taken on a slang meaning as someone who tries to steal another person’s date. It surged in popularity during the ’50s, thanks in part to the Everly Brothers’ hit song of the same name: “Johnny is a joker that’s been tryin’ to steal my baby (He’s a bird dog).” Before long, it broadened to a verb for seeking out business opportunities, especially new clients or talent.
Sock Hop
In the 1950s, teenagers kicked off their shoes and hopped around gymnasium floors in their socks at dance parties known as “sock hops.” Students were required to remove their hard-soled shoes before entering the dance floor so they didn’t scuff up the floors. The first sock hops emerged during the 1940s, but by the ’50s, they were a staple of American teen culture, featuring rock ’n’ roll music and the latest dance moves. As Danny and the Juniors said, “All the cats and the chicks can get their kicks at the hop.”
Dreamboat
In the 1980s, we might have called an attractive man a hunk, and today, a Gen Zer might have their eyes on a snack. But during the 1950s, the go-to equivalent for a handsome, charming man was “dreamboat.” The term reached its peak as swoon-worthy actors and rock ’n’ roll singers stole the hearts of audiences — think James Dean, Marlon Brando, Elvis Presley, and Ricky Nelson. It even appeared as the title of a 1952 comedy film starring Clifton Webb and Ginger Rogers.
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Peepers
“Peepers” has been slang for “eyes” since the early 18th century, but it enjoyed a resurgence during the 1940s and ’50s to refer to eyes, eyeglasses, or even sunglasses: “Can you read this? I forgot my peepers!” The term was popularized by the 1938 song “Jeepers Creepers,” famously performed by Louis Armstrong: “Jeepers Creepers, where’d ya get those peepers? / Jeepers Creepers, where’d ya get those eyes?” In the television industry, the hit ’50s sitcom Mr. Peepers followed the daily life of a mild-mannered science teacher known for his glasses.
Ragtop
In 1950s slang, a ragtop was a convertible car with a soft, fabric roof. The term was popularized in hot-rodding culture, distinguishing these cars from conventional hardtop convertibles, which were sometimes called flip-tops. “Ragtop” first appeared around 1952 and quickly became used among car enthusiasts and teens alike.
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Made in the Shade
To have it made in the shade is to be in a very easy or comfortable position, typically in reference to lifestyle: “After winning the lottery, they have it made in the shade.” The phrase evokes the relief of resting in the shade rather than working in the hot sun. Not much is known about its origin, but it may be rooted in an old children’s rhyme: “ice-cold lemonade, made in the shade, stirred with a spade, by an old maid.” Regardless, in the 1950s it became a cheerful way to describe good fortune.
Beatnik
A beatnik is someone who participated in a social movement of artistic self-expression during the 1950s and into the 1960s. The term quickly became slang for any young, artistic person who rejected conventional society. It was coined in 1958 by journalist Herb Caen and was sometimes used humorously or critically. It drew from the beat generation, originally referring to a weariness with society, but it was later associated with rhythm and jazz music. Its suffix, “-nik,” is a product of the Sputnik space craze, derived from Russian and meaning “a person or thing associated with or involved in.”
Barn Burner
A barn burner is something especially exciting or interesting, especially in sports, though the term is much older than its athletic usage. In the late 19th century, it was a political term referring to a progressive faction of the New York Democratic Party. It referred to an old story about a farmer who burned down his barn to rid it of rats, implying taking extreme measures to reach a goal. By the 1930s, it had taken on a figurative sense, and throughout the 1940s and ’50s, it was commonly used in sports journalism to describe noteworthy events. Today, it might also be used to describe an energetic performance, such as a speech.
With more access than ever before to self-help content, we’ve begun to incorporate “therapy speak” into everyday conversation — but is its popularity weakening the true meaning of these terms?
Once confined to clinical settings, therapy words such as “trigger” and “trauma” crop up everywhere these days, from morning talk shows to casual conversations and social media. According to a recent survey by the mental health clinic Thriveworks, 95% of Americans reported hearing so-called therapy speak in everyday life. This may help normalize mental health awareness, which is a good thing. But at the same time, using these words in casual contexts can diminish the seriousness of certain conditions or lead to the misuse of important mental health concepts.
While it’s typically OK to use these terms in everyday conversation, be mindful of who you are speaking to and how you are using certain words. Here’s a breakdown of some of the most popular therapy speak used in everyday life, along with what these terms really mean.
Trauma
Imagine flipping through old photos with a friend when they laugh and say, “I cannot relive the trauma of my senior prom dress!” While clearly said in jest, this kind of usage reflects a larger trend: “Trauma” has become shorthand for anything embarrassing, awkward, or unpleasant.
Clinically, however, the American Psychological Association (APA) defines “trauma” as a disturbing experience that causes “significant fear, helplessness, dissociation, confusion, or other disruptive feelings.” These events might include serious accidents, violence, war, or natural disasters, but people can also experience trauma in their everyday lives, which may cause lasting effects on their mental health and daily functioning.
Self-care
“Self-care,” in medical and mental health contexts, refers to essential daily activities — such as eating, dressing, and grooming — that can be managed independently. In recent years, however, this term has expanded significantly to encompass any action taken to improve mental, emotional, or physical health.
Social media influencers, for example, use “self-care” to describe their wellness routines, spa days, and shopping trips. In this context, self-care involves treating yourself or doing something indulgent as a reward. In modern slang, if it makes you happy, it’s self-care, though this usage obscures the term’s clinical meaning.
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OCD
You’ve probably heard someone say, “I’m so OCD about my desk” or “She’s OCD about her coffee order.” In everyday speech, “OCD” is often incorrectly used to describe extreme neatness, organization, or particularity in personal preferences.
However, OCD, obsessive-compulsive disorder, is actually a clinically diagnosed condition characterized by intrusive and distressing thoughts, called obsessions. These cause people to repeat behaviors or mental acts — known as compulsions — to reduce anxiety. The disorder can be all-consuming and very disruptive to daily life, and the casual use of “OCD” undermines a serious mental health condition.
Toxic
Like “OCD,” “toxic” is an overextended term that has been weakened in everyday conversation. In therapy speak, toxic people are consistently difficult, demanding, and even hostile. Similarly, toxic relationships are often one-sided, supporting only one person’s needs. These people and situations can involve manipulation, disrespect, and even emotional harm or abuse.
In everyday parlance, however, “toxic” is a catchall for anything unpleasant — from difficult co-workers to minor disagreements. But having one argument with your sibling about vacation isn’t a truly toxic situation. Often, its use also oversimplifies situations. If you say, “My boss is so toxic,” are they actually toxic, or do they just not communicate effectively? Nuance is important when implementing this term.
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Trigger
Most casual uses of “trigger” involve minor irritations. For example, a flight gets canceled or a manager calls a last-minute Friday meeting, and those involved complain that they feel triggered. While these annoyances may cause anxiety or upset, that doesn’t fit the therapy version of “trigger.” In clinical settings, a trigger is a more serious phenomenon that those with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) struggle with.
By the APA’s definition, a trigger is a stimulus — such as an anniversary, a sensory cue, or even violence in the news — that elicits a reaction. These events can remind a person with PTSD of a memory from a traumatic experience, resulting in negative mental and physical symptoms.
Boundary
Whether in the context of the workplace or dating advice, “boundary” is a buzzword. Today, people often say they’re setting boundaries when reacting to others’ behavior. For example, abruptly ending a friendship over delayed text responses may be framed as “setting a boundary,” but it can also reflect avoidance rather than healthy communication.
Originally, “boundary” had a strictly psychological definition: something that helps a person set realistic limits on participation in a relationship or activity. It’s about what you will and won’t accept, and how you’ll react when those lines are crossed. A true boundary may be turning your phone to “Do Not Disturb” in the evenings to better your mental health. You might communicate boundaries by telling someone that if they do a certain thing (such as show up late), you will respond with a certain behavior (such as leaving without them). A boundary is something you manage through your own behavior in a consistent, self-respecting way.
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Gaslight
“Gaslighting” means “to psychologically manipulate someone over a period of time.” It can cause a person to second-guess their thoughts, memories, and even perception of reality. Say a friend promises to talk about an argument later, but when the time comes, they deny that the conversation or argument ever happened. This is an example of gaslighting; it can make you question your own memory of the event, which can be deeply upsetting if it happens repeatedly.
In modern slang, people incorrectly apply this term to everyday disagreements, as in, “He said he didn’t like the movie. He’s gaslighting me!” True gaslighting distorts reality; it isn’t about differing opinions. The misuse of this term — and other therapy speak — can make it hard to determine whether the speaker is referring to the clinical or casual definition.
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