Author: jfreeman

2 MIN READ

Why Do We Say “Graveyard Shift” and “Skeleton in the Closet”?

Ghoulish figures have a place in our lexicon year-round, in frightening expressions such as “graveyard shift,” “skeleton staff,” “skeleton in the closet,” and other similar turns of phrase.

by Bennett Kleinman
The upper half of a human skeleton

Spooky season is in full swing, and it’s the perfect time to scare yourself silly by watching your favorite horror flicks again and again. But gothic imagery and ghoulish figures have a place in our lexicon year-round, in frightening expressions such as “graveyard shift,” “skeleton staff,” “skeleton in the closet,” and other similar turns of phrase.

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The term “graveyard shift” is another way to say “night shift,” referring to an overnight job during the quietest and darkest hours of the day. People often work the graveyard shift alone, surrounded by silence and darkness. The idiom was first seen in print in an 1897 article in The Salt Lake Tribune: “The police changed shifts for the month yesterday. This month Sergeant Ware takes the morning relief. Sergeant Matt Rhodes the middle and Sergeant John Burbidge the graveyard shift.” The word “graveyard” in this context is deeply evocative of the eerie feeling you may get while working solo.

“Skeleton staff” is defined as “the smallest number of people needed for a business or organization to operate” — it has nothing to do with dapper  skeletons in suits and ties. The phrase relates to the skeletal structure’s basic function of support for the rest of the body. While one of the earliest mentions of a “skeleton staff” dates to a 1925 article in Strand Magazine, similar phrases meaning “in the nature of a skeleton” have existed for centuries. Alexander Hamilton wrote about the “skeleton state of our regiments” in a 1778 letter that discussed imperfections within the U.S. military at the time.The phrase “skeleton in the closet,” meanwhile, originates from across the pond, with the Anatomy Act of 1832. This piece of legislation allowed British doctors to acquire dead bodies (often criminals) for research. Doctors would often keep the skeletons, perhaps tucked away in a closet, for further anatomical study. Though less literal, and much less morbid, having a skeleton in the closet today means having some embarrassing baggage you’d rather keep private.

Featured image credit: Alex Shuper/ Unsplash+
Bennett Kleinman
Staff Writer
Bennett Kleinman is a New York City-based staff writer for Optimism. He is also a freelance comedy writer, devoted New York Yankees and New Jersey Devils fan, and thinks plain seltzer is the best drink ever invented.
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When Do You Say “Somebody” Instead of “Someone”?

While “someone” is usually considered more formal, in some contexts “somebody” is more important.

by Samantha Abernethy
Unknown female person silhouette

If almost any millennial hears the word “someBODY…” blaring from a speaker, they can finish the first line of Smash Mouth’s 1999 hit song “All Star”: “Somebody once told me the world is gonna roll me / I ain’t the sharpest tool in the shed.” But what would happen to the song if it started with “someone” instead of “somebody”? The two words have virtually the same meaning and are often used interchangeably. However, “All Star” would not be the same if you changed that first word.

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“Someone” is considered the more formal of the two, so it’s preferred in legal and academic writing. This may be one of those language rules you’ve followed without noticing, but give it a try now. The use of “one” as a pronoun is very formal: “One may find that using ‘someone’ is more appropriate in professional settings.”

“Someone” and “somebody” are indefinite pronouns, meaning they refer to a nonspecific or unidentified person. Both should be written as single words — the two-word variants “some one” and “some body” went out of style around the early 19th century. Other indefinite pronouns include “anyone”/”anybody” and “everyone”/”everybody.” As with “someone,” the words “anyone” and “everyone” are also preferred in formal writing.

While “someone” is more formal, “somebody” can be more important. Comedian Lily Tomlin said, “I always wanted to be somebody, but now I realize I should have been more specific.” Here, the use of “somebody” is more specific — it’s used as a noun instead of as an indefinite pronoun. Tomlin was joking that she may have become famous, but she should have specified the type of fame, and her quote illustrates when we might want to choose “somebody” over “someone.” This slight grammatical shift drastically changes the meaning of the word. Instead of an unnamed person, now “somebody” refers to a person of particular importance, fame, or power. 

Featured image credit: Koldunov/ iStock
Samantha Abernethy
Freelance Writer
Samantha Abernethy is a freelancer in Chicago. When she isn't staring at a laptop, you can find her sniffing out the best coffee with her greyhound Ruby, or chasing her kids around the nearest library.
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What’s the Difference Between Sympathy and Empathy?

These similar-sounding and commonly confused words have two different meanings. Sympathy says, “I know how you feel,” while empathy says, “I feel how you feel.”

by Rachel Gresh
Two people holding hands in effort of support or care

It’s not uncommon for English words to be confused or misused. But as literary heavyweight Mark Twain explained, choosing the right word is crucial: “The difference between the almost right word and the right word is really a large matter — it’s the difference between the lightning bug and the lightning.” The meanings of “sympathy” and “empathy” fit Twain’s metaphor similarly. In both cases, the latter term carries more weight.

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Both “sympathy” and “empathy” refer to a response to someone else’s emotional state, but the ways of relating are different. “Sympathy” means you’re concerned for someone, while “empathy” means being concerned with them. It involves actively sharing in someone’s emotions. However, the dictionary definitions of the two are similar.

According to Merriam-Webster, “sympathy” has several definitions, but the one causing confusion with empathy is this: “The act or capacity of entering into or sharing the feelings or interests of another.” The definition of “empathy” is similar, albeit kicked up a notch: “The action of understanding, being aware of, being sensitive to, and vicariously experiencing the feelings, thoughts, and experience of another.” The key difference between the two is the vicarious nature of “empathy.” However, this nuanced relationship is understandably confusing and has been for centuries.

“Sympathy” is the older of the duo. It appeared in English in the late 16th century, derived from the Greek “sympatheia,” meaning “fellow-feeling” or “community of feeling.” The roots of “sympathy” (syn and pathos) aptly mean “together feeling.” Between the 16th and 20th centuries, “sympathy” meant what “empathy” means today, but was ultimately replaced by its lexical competitor, “empathy.”

The term “empathy” emerged in the early 20th century, modeled after the German term Einfühlung (from ein, for “in,” and Fühlung, meaning “feeling”). It was created by German philosopher Rudolf Lotze as a translation of the Greek term empatheia, meaning “passion” or “state of emotion.” The roots em and pathos mean “in feeling.” At first, “empathy” was used in a scholarly fashion in fields such as philosophy and psychology, and while it still retains those technical uses, it also has evolved. By the mid-20th century, it replaced “sympathy” as the ultimate display of commiseration and compassion.

Featured image credit: PeopleImages Yuri A/ Shutterstock
Rachel Gresh
Freelance Writer
Rachel is a Washington, D.C.-based freelance writer. When she's not writing, you can find her wandering through a museum, exploring a new city, or advocating the importance of the Oxford comma.
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Why Do We Call Someone Who Takes Risks a Daredevil?

Daredevils (stuntmen, thrill seekers, and swashbucklers) have been called many things, but they surely aren’t evil. Where did this compound word come from?

by Rachel Gresh
Action shot of two dirt bikers mid-air.

The year was 1966, and a soon-to-be-famous Evel Knievel had a plan to drum up business for his motorcycle shop in Moses Lake, Washington: He’d jump his motorcycle over 40 parked cars, some rattlesnakes, and a caged cougar. He didn’t quite make the jump — he landed in the pile of rattlesnakes — but somehow he escaped unscathed, and a star was born. Most called him crazy, some called him a genius, but everyone called him a “daredevil.”

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Renowned daredevil Evel Knievel lived up to the title. When used as a noun, a daredevil is a “recklessly bold person,” and when used as an adjective, “daredevil” describes the “recklessly and often ostentatiously daring.” “Daredevil” first appeared in English in the late 18th century, in the writings of English poet and satirist John Wolcot. The term spread quickly, likely due to the popularity of circus performers. In the burgeoning industrial world, entertainment-based daredevils were more popular than ever, whether walking on high wires, jumping bicycles through flaming hoops, or going over Niagara Falls in barrels. However, circus performers and thrill seekers aren’t devilish or sinister, so why is the word “devil” used in this fashion?

Etymologists say it isn’t about labeling the person a devil, but “one who dares the devil.” A similar word formation is seen in “scarecrow.” The field-dwelling decoy isn’t a bird, but it scares birds away. In other words, it’s “one who scares crows.” “Pickpocket” was formed this way, too, as in “one who picks pockets,” or someone who steals. So, the masses weren’t calling daredevil Evel Knievel evil. Although, Robert Knievel did legally change his first name to “Evel,” so we doubt he’d mind the sinister connotation.

Featured image credit: PeopleImages Yuri A/ Shutterstock
Rachel Gresh
Freelance Writer
Rachel is a Washington, D.C.-based freelance writer. When she's not writing, you can find her wandering through a museum, exploring a new city, or advocating the importance of the Oxford comma.
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Why Do Brits Spell “Colour” With an “ou”?

Vowels aren’t the only difference between British and American English, but these spelling changes have an interesting backstory.

by Bennett Kleinman
Colorful paint cans with color card and brush

When the United States of America declared independence from England, it was sort of like a bad breakup. Americans got rid of reminders of their past life, such as monarchic rule and a taste for jellied eels. It was also the start of a linguistic divide between British and American English, marked by different spellings. We see this schism most clearly today in words like “honour”/“honor” and “favourite”/“favorite” — spelled with an “ou” by the Brits, but with just an “o” by American English speakers.

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The English language as a whole developed, in large part, by borrowing words from other languages. Take the word “color” — it was adopted from French, where it’s spelled couleur. Often the British retained seemingly superfluous vowels from the original language, not because they served a practical purpose, but rather as a nod to the word’s etymology.

Prior to the 18th century, spelling wasn’t standardized. If your reader could understand the meaning of your words, it didn’t matter so much if you spelled “defence” with a “C” and your neighbor spelled it “defense.” However, American Noah Webster (of Webster’s Dictionary) was a prominent advocate for standardizing spelling, and also for efforts to differentiate American English from the English spoken elsewhere. One method to accomplish both goals was to simplify the spelling by removing (what he thought were) extra letters and changing letters to match phonetic pronunciations. In 1806, he published A Compendious Dictionary of the English Language, which eliminated the “u” from words such as “honour,” the “k” from words such as “publick,” and the double “l” in words such as “travelled.” It also changed the “-ce” in words such as “defence” to “-se.”

However, like anything else in the English language, there are exceptions to the rule. Take the word “glamour” —  it originated in Scotland and didn’t appear in Webster’s Dictionary until after Mr. Webster’s spelling efforts had passed. Lexicographers kept the “ou,” since there was no longer a concerted effort to get rid of those superfluous vowels en masse.

Featured image credit: malerapaso/ iStock
Bennett Kleinman
Staff Writer
Bennett Kleinman is a New York City-based staff writer for Optimism. He is also a freelance comedy writer, devoted New York Yankees and New Jersey Devils fan, and thinks plain seltzer is the best drink ever invented.
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Should I Use “Everyday” or “Every Day”?

Unravel the mystery of “everyday” versus “every day” and never second-guess your word choice again.

by Bennett Kleinman
Close up of calendar and clock

Deciding whether to use “everyday” or “every day” can be as tricky as choosing where to order takeout from. While we may not be qualified to tell you what food to eat — though you can never go wrong with pizza — we are able to shed some light on the grammatical issue at hand. “Everyday” is an adjective that essentially means “ordinary” or “commonplace.” It’s used to describe objects that you’d typically encounter on a regular basis without any sort of exact schedule. For instance, an outfit that you wear frequently could be described as “everyday clothing.”

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“Every day,” by contrast, acts as a synonym for the word “daily” and is used to indicate events that happen each day. For example, “she rides the bus to work every day,” or “he orders the same sandwich every day for lunch.” Here’s a trick: If you can insert the word “single” between the words “every” and “day” and your message remains the same, then “every day” is more appropriate to use than “everyday.” “She rides the bus to work every single day” makes sense, while “she wears every single day clothing” does not. 

“Someday” vs. “some day” and “anytime” vs. “any time” operate similarly. Whenever one of these grammatical conundrums presents itself, keep the following in mind: Closed single words (“someday,” “anytime,” “everyday”) are modifiers, whereas open double words (“some day,” “any time,” “every day”) are noun phrases that are modified by the words that precede them.

Just like everything else in the English language, there are exceptions to that rule. “Anywhere” and “everybody” are almost always written as closed single words. But that’s a topic for a future edition. 

Featured image credit: Chutima Chaochaiya/ Shutterstock
Bennett Kleinman
Staff Writer
Bennett Kleinman is a New York City-based staff writer for Optimism. He is also a freelance comedy writer, devoted New York Yankees and New Jersey Devils fan, and thinks plain seltzer is the best drink ever invented.
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Is “GIF” Pronounced “Jiff” or “Giff”?

For nearly 40 years, the pronunciation of “GIF” has divided technophiles. According to major dictionaries, both sides of the debate say “GIF” correctly, but that isn’t the whole story.

by Rachel Gresh
Document file type flat GIF

Is it pronounced “giff” or “jiff”? According to Steve Wilhite, the creator of the GIF image file format, “choosy developers choose JIF.” If you recognize this tagline as a riff on a  famous peanut butter brand slogan (“Choosy moms choose Jif”), you know the intended pronunciation is with a soft “G,” like in “giant” or “gym.”  

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Wilhite doubled down on this pronunciation at the 2013 Webby Awards, displaying a massive GIF while accepting his award. The short animation plainly stated, “It’s pronounced ‘JIF’ NOT ‘GIF.’” So, if the creator promotes this pronunciation, that should resolve the dispute, right? Not so fast. According to a Stack Overflow survey, 65% of respondents use a hard “G” (as in “gum”) — the “wrong” pronunciation.

A GIF, short for “graphics interchange format,” is a type of looping animation created by Wilhite in 1987. GIFs are widely used today in marketing, entertainment, and texting, but despite their ubiquity, there’s still much debate over the pronunciation of their name. Even with Wilhite’s proclamation, the question persists: Should it be pronounced with a hard “G” as in “gift” or a soft “G” as in “gem”? The short answer is that both are technically acceptable, according to Merriam-Webster and the Oxford English Dictionary. (Remember: While we look to dictionaries as the arbiter of truth for language queries, they record how people use language, but they don’t necessarily make up the rules.)

The argument for the hard “G” is fueled by what the “G” stands for: “graphics.” For some, this is a dead giveaway and the reason for the discourse. However, no rules state that acronyms must be pronounced correspondingly to their full names. Take GEICO, or “Government Employees Insurance Company.” In this acronym, the “E” is pronounced with the “I” to form an /aɪ/ sound, like in “height,” while in “employees,” the “E” creates an /e/ sound, as in “edit.”

In 2020, in a humorous attempt to settle the GIF/JIF dispute, Jif partnered with GIPHY (an online GIF database) to release limited-edition jars of peanut butter with labels reading “Gif.” However, both pronunciations persist, leaving us to wonder what the next amusing chapter will be in this ongoing debate.

Featured image credit: Maxchered/ iStock
Rachel Gresh
Freelance Writer
Rachel is a Washington, D.C.-based freelance writer. When she's not writing, you can find her wandering through a museum, exploring a new city, or advocating the importance of the Oxford comma.
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When Should You Say “May I?”

There is more than one way to ask permission. Understanding the significance of asking “May I?” vs. “Can I?” can enhance your language etiquette.

by Rachel Gresh
Close-up of a girl asking for permission

Do you remember playing the game “Mother, can I?” when you were a kid? Of course not, because it’s called “Mother, may I?” In this elementary game, the chosen “Mother” calls on each player, and they must ask permission to move a certain number of steps. The Mother may grant (or deny) permission, or give an alternative move to perform, but the key is in the asking: “Mother, may I?” If the player forgets to structure their request like this, they’ll never reach the Mother, and the finish line. This playground game teaches children the rules of an essential question in the English language: “May I?”

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Going back to Old English roots, the structure of “May I?” has been used to ask for permission. This question is formal, pleasant, and shows respect — when in doubt, go with this option. That said, if you’ve ever been on the receiving end of a snarky “I don’t know. CAN you?” retort to your question of “Can I?”, you can take solace in knowing that this structure is perfectly acceptable. “Can I?” is informal, and it’s a good option for casual requests when “may” sounds too ceremonious.  “Can” has multiple definitions — yes, it refers to having the ability to do something (that’s what’s implied by the snarky nonanswer), but in the 1800s, it gained the definition of “to have permission.”

While we’ve resolved the “May I?” vs. “Can I?” debate, there are a few more prospects for asking permission. To get technical, “can” and “may” are modal verbs, meaning they work as helper verbs to express a hypothetical situation (for example, “I can pick up the kids, but if you leave work early, could you?”) Other modal verbs include “might,” “should,” “will,” “must,” and “would.” Depending on the context, several other modal verbs work for asking permission: “Might I ask who is calling?” or “Could I use your phone?” In order of increasing formality, the permission-seeking modal verbs are “can,” “could,” “may,” and “might.” Try to gauge the tone of your conversation and pick your modal verb appropriately. 

Featured image credit: Just dance/ Shutterstock
Rachel Gresh
Freelance Writer
Rachel is a Washington, D.C.-based freelance writer. When she's not writing, you can find her wandering through a museum, exploring a new city, or advocating the importance of the Oxford comma.
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When Should You Use “Which” Instead of “That”?

Elevate your writing with this guide to using often-confused words such as “which” and “that” correctly.

by Bennett Kleinman
Man pointing index fingers in different direction

“Which” and “that” are a lot like identical twins, in that they’re pretty easy to mix up at first glance. But just like identical twins have unique traits that set them apart, so do these similar yet distinct terms. One reason we mix up “which” and “that” so often is the words were used interchangeably until the 1700s, and old habits die hard. But under today’s grammatical guidelines, there’s an appropriate context for “which,” and separate occasions for “that.”

Both “which” and “that” are relative pronouns, meaning they can refer to any related or previously mentioned nouns. But to understand how they differ, it’s useful to define the concepts of restrictive and nonrestrictive clauses. A restrictive clause adds essential information to a sentence: “The album that came out after her child was born changed her musical style.” In this example, the restrictive clause of “that came out after her child was born” is crucial to the meaning of this sentence. 

A nonrestrictive clause, however, works as a conversational aside, adding nonessential information: “The band’s first album, which was my favorite, had great backup singers.” It might be nice to know that you like an album, but the point of this sentence is the prowess of the backup singers, so the clause within the commas is considered nonrestrictive. As these examples show, it’s appropriate to use “that” in restrictive clauses, and “which” in nonrestrictive clauses.

Nonrestrictive clauses often appear at the end of sentences, not just in the middle like in our example above. For example, “David Bowie’s album Young Americans had famous backup singers, which included Luther Vandross.” Here’s our memory tip: If you need a comma, you’re probably dealing with a nonrestrictive clause, meaning “which” is almost always the correct choice. Commas set off info that, when removed, doesn’t impact the sentence’s clarity or meaning. If you don’t need a comma, use “that.” 

“That” has a variety of usages “which” cannot serve. It can act as a definite article referring to a specific noun (“That is my favorite album”), as a conjunction to connect two clauses (“I didn’t know that it was their first time performing together”), or as an adverb to add context before an adjective or verb (“I don’t want to spend that much money on concert tickets”). This makes “that” more versatile than “which.”

Featured image credit: Krakenimages/ Shutterstock
Bennett Kleinman
Staff Writer
Bennett Kleinman is a New York City-based staff writer for Optimism. He is also a freelance comedy writer, devoted New York Yankees and New Jersey Devils fan, and thinks plain seltzer is the best drink ever invented.
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What Is a Double Negative?

Learn why two negatives don’t always make a positive in the world of grammar.

by Bennett Kleinman
Wrong choice X button

In the real world, purging negativity is an important skill for a happy life. In the grammar world, purging double negativity is crucial for clear and concise writing. Double negatives are redundant thoughts made of multiple negative words; these result in complicated and confusing sentences. However, they aren’t not useful. Every once in a while, an appropriately used double negative can improve your writing, but those occasions are rare.

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A double negative is any statement with two negative words. A person might say, for example, “I didn’t see nobody.” The two negatives are “did not” and “nobody.” The problem is that double negatives muddle the intentions, resulting in the opposite meaning. “I didn’t see anybody” would be clearer. Think back to math class — multiplying two negative numbers together cancels out the negative and turns it into a positive. It’s the same with words. Two negatives cancel each other out and turn the statement into a positive. Combining “didn’t” and “nobody” flips the meaning to imply the speaker did see somebody, which wasn’t the goal of the statement.

Common words in double negatives include negative determiners (“no” and “none of”), negative pronouns (“neither,” “no one”), negative adverbs (“not,” “never”), and negative verbs, which are created by adding “not” or making it a contraction (“wouldn’t,” “don’t”). The good news is, a double negative is usually easy to fix by removing one negative word. For example, “I cannot go nowhere tonight” can be fixed by removing “nowhere” to get “I cannot go tonight.”

There are rare instances where double negatives can add flair to your writing, however. If you’re hoping to emphasize a point, you might say, “I can’t not go to this party” for added oomph and drama. Or just ask the Rolling Stones, who famously sang, “(I Can’t Get No) Satisfaction.” In these cases, the double negatives are used for rhetorical effect. But otherwise, they should be avoided.

Featured image credit: Thx4Stock/ iStock
Bennett Kleinman
Staff Writer
Bennett Kleinman is a New York City-based staff writer for Optimism. He is also a freelance comedy writer, devoted New York Yankees and New Jersey Devils fan, and thinks plain seltzer is the best drink ever invented.
Advertisement
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Should I Use “Everyday” or “Every Day”?
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